Period/Description
EARLY HISTORY
ca. 10,000 B.C. Late Stone Age cultures start
to flourish in southern
savanna.
first millennium B.C. In long series of migrations,
lasting well into first
millennium A.D., Bantu-speaking
peoples from West Africa
disperse throughout Zaire,
bringing an economy based on
yam and palm farming.
ca. late first millennium B.C. Non-Bantu speakers arrive in
northern grasslands, then
penetrate forest area,
intermingling with Bantu
speakers who preceded them;
Central Sudanic speakers
introduce cattle herding and
cultivation of cereals into
northeastern Zaire.
ca. A.D. 100 Related food complex based on
cereals and hunting separately
introduced into southeastern
Zaire from East Africa.
first millennium A.D. Bananas introduced from East
Africa; iron and copper
implements come into use;
smelting introduced.
FOURTEENTH CENTURY
late 1300s Kongo Kingdom established,
beginning expansion that
continues until mid-seventeenth
century.
FIFTEENTH CENTURY
Luba Empire "founded" in late
fifteenth century by legendary
figures, Nkongolo and Ilunga
Kalala; other Luba chiefs
settle among neighboring
peoples, including Lunda, and
introduce Luba concepts of
state organization; Luba state
based on patrilineal farming
villages governed by divine
king whose authority derived
from bulopwe--an
inherited, supernatural power
conferring the right to kingly
office and title. Luba noted
for artistic achievements in
sculpture, praise poetry, and
polyphonic music. Lunda
chiefdoms unite to form Lunda
Kingdom.
1483 Portuguese discover Congo
River, beginning long-term
relationship between Portugal
and Kongo Kingdom that lasts
until destruction of Kongo in
early eighteenth century.
SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Lunda kingdom comes under Luba
influence; legendary founders
of Lunda include Kinguri,
Chinyama, and Mwaant Yaav;
Kinguri and Chinyama migrate
west and found Lunda-like
states in Angola; Mwaant Yaav's
name becomes perpetual title in
and royal name for central
Lunda kingdom; beginning in
sixteenth century, and
continuing to eighteenth
century, Lunda expand west,
east, and south, creating
series of related kingdoms
governed jointly by kings and
councils of titled officials;
Lunda expansion facilitated by
devices of positional
succession and perpetual
kinship, which made it possible
to incorporate non-Lunda into
the Lunda administrative
system; hunting important among
the matrilineal Lunda; despite
their political genius, their
culture in general was less
developed than that of Luba.
ca. 1500 Zande appear in northern Zaire
and found a number of
agriculturally based kingdoms.
early 1500s Kongo king Affonso requests
technical help from Portugal,
agreeing to make payment in
copper, ivory, and slaves;
Affonso declares Catholicism
Kongo state religion.
mid-1500s Corn introduced to Kongo by
Portuguese, followed by cassava
shortly after 1600 and tobacco
by late seventeenth century.
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
ca. 1630 Kuba Kingdom founded by King
Shyaam aMbul aNgoong; a highly
centralized agricultural and
trading state, it reached its
zenith in mid-eighteenth
century and remained stable
into nineteenth century.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Europeans in west and Arabs in
east become heavily involved in
slave trade.
ca. 1750 Kazembe Kingdom founded in
Luapula Valley as Lunda
offshoot following Lunda
expansion to control salt pans
and copper mines in Shaba;
loosely part of Lunda Empire
but autonomous in practice.
NINETEENTH CENTURY
1840-72 David Livingstone explores
Congo River basin.
1871 Livingstone and Henry Morton
Stanley, journalist
commissioned to search for him,
meet on eastern shore of Lake
Tanganyika.
1874-77 Stanley commissioned by New
York and London newspapers to
continue Livingstone's
explorations; Stanley completes
descent of Congo River in 1877.
1878 King Léopold II forms
consortium of bankers to
finance exploration and
colonization of Congo.
1878-87 Under auspices of consortium,
Stanley sets out to establish
trading posts and make treaties
with local chiefs, eventually
returning with 450 treaties in
hand.
1884-85 At Conference of Berlin,
November 1884-February 1885,
major European powers
acknowledge claim of Léopold
II's International Association
of the Congo; colony named
Congo Free State.
1890s Construction of transportation
network and exploitation of
mineral resources begin; forced
labor used extensively to
harvest rubber, ivory, and
other commodities; mutinies
within Force Publique in 1895
and 1897.
1890-94 Belgian military campaign
expels Afro-Arab traders from
Zaire and ends slave trade.
TWENTIETH CENTURY
1908 In response to growing
criticism of treatment of
African population, Belgian
parliament annexes Congo Free
State and renames it Belgian
Congo.
1914-17 Units of Belgian colonial
forces see action alongside
British forces in German East
Africa.
1921 Simon Kimbangu founds
Kimbanguist Church.
1920s-30s Early nationalistic aspirations
expressed by Kimbanguist Church
and Kitawala religious
movement.
1940-45 Production of goods and
minerals greatly increased to
finance Belgian effort in World
War II; large-scale social and
economic changes occur as many
rural Africans relocate to
urban areas; demands for
political reforms grow.
1952-58 Legal reforms enacted
permitting Africans to own
land, granting them free access
to public establishments, and
the right to trial in all
courts of law as well as some
political participation.
1956 Alliance of the Kongo People
(Alliance des Bakongo--Abako)
issues manifesto calling for
immediate independence.
late 1950s Calls for independence of
Katanga grow, and separatist
party, the Confederation of
Katanga Associations
(Confédération des Associations
du Katanga--Conakat) headed by
Moïse Tshombe organized.
1957 March Statue passed allowing urban
Africans to elect local
communal councils; Abako wins
majority of seats in urban
elections.
May Appointed rural councils
established.
1959 January Belgian authorities disperse
crowd of Abako members at
political meeting; widespread
rioting follows; Belgium
recognizes total independence
as goal for Belgian Congo.
July The Congolese National Movement
(Mouvement National Congolais--
MNC), which had emerged as
standard-bearer of independence
movement in 1958-59, splits
into two camps, radicals headed
by Patrice Lumumba and moderate
wing led by Joseph Ileo,
Cyrille Adoula, and Albert
Kalonji.
1960 January Round Table Conference held in
Brussels to discuss
independence.
May In national legislative
elections, MNC-Lumumba wins
largest number of votes;
Belgian authorities name MNC's
Patrice Lumumba prime minister;
colonial government promulgates
Loi Fondamentale (Fundamental
Law) to guide nation to
independence and to serve as
first constitution.
June Abako leader Joseph Kasavubu
elected president; Congo
becomes independent and First
Republic established June 30.
July Army mutinies against its
European officers, July 4-5;
officer corps Africanized and
Joseph-Désiré Mobutu (later
Mobutu Sese Seko) named chief
of staff, July 6-9; mutiny
spreads to Équateur and
Katanga, and Belgium sends in
paratroopers; Moïse Tshombe
declares Katanga an independent
state and Belgian naval forces
bombard Matadi on July 11;
Lumumba and Kasavubu request
United Nations military
assistance in face of Belgian
aggression and Katangan
secession, July 12; United
Nations Security Council
resolution calls for Belgian
withdrawal and authorizes
United Nations intervention,
July 14; first United Nations
troops arrive in Zaire, July
15, begin military intervention
against Katanga in support of
the central government.
August South Kasai headed by Albert
Kalonji secedes August 8.
September President Kasavubu and Prime
Minister Lumumba formally break
and fire each other from their
posts; Kasavubu names Joseph
Ileo as new prime minister on
September 5; on September 14,
Mobutu steps in and assumes
power while keeping Kasavubu as
nominal president; government
to be run by the so-called
College of Commissioners;
United Nations and most Western
nations recognize Kasavubu
government.
November Antoine Gizenga leaves for
Stanleyville to establish rival
national regime. Lumumba, under
house arrest since dismissal by
Kasavubu, leaves to join
Gizenga, but is arrested and
transferred to Katanga.
1961 January Lumumba killed on January 17,
but his death not announced
until February.
February College of Commissioners
dissolved, and provisional
government formed headed by
Joseph Ileo.
July Continuing deliberations
undertaken at three conferences
earlier in 1961, parliament
meets close to Léopoldville to
work out framework for a
reunified Congo; deputies from
all provinces attend; secession
of South Kasai ends.
August Cyrille Adoula named prime
minister, August 2.
1963 January After two and a half years of
conflict, Tshombe concedes
defeat, and Katanga secession
ends, January 14; Tshombe
arrested and sent into exile.
1964 January Led by Pierre Mulele, rebellion
breaks out in Kwilu area around
Kikwit.
May Second rebellion, headed by
Gaston Soumialot, begins in
east and rapidly spreads.
July Tshombe recalled from exile and
replaces Adoula as prime
minister.
August First postindependence
constitution adopted.
December Eastern rebellion put down and
Soumialot sent into exile.
1965 November Rivalry between Prime Minister
Tshombe and President Kasavubu
leads to government paralysis;
Mobutu leads successful coup,
November 24, dismisses Kasavubu
and Tshombe, names himself as
president, and appoints
figurehead prime minister,
Colonel Leonard Mulamba; these
actions mark end of First
Republic.
December Kwilu uprising ends, and Mulele
goes into exile in Brazzaville;
he later (1968) returns to
Congo under amnesty but is
executed.
1966 July Former Katangan gendarmes
mutiny in Kisangani.
December Cities with European names
gradually given African names.
1967 January Upper Katanga Mining Union
(Union Minière du Haut-Katanga-
-UMHK) nationalized.
April Popular Revolutionary Movement
(Mouvement Populaire de la
Révolution--MPR) created, April
17.
May In Manifesto of N'Sele, Mobutu
proclaims official ideologies.
June Second postindependence
constitution proclaimed,
removing virtually all
political power from provinces
and allowing president to rule
by decree.
July Former Katangan gendarmes again
mutiny in Kisangani.
1969 June About thirty Lovanium
University students
killed in clashes with
security forces.
1970 November Mobutu elected president in
first presidential election,
having already held office for
five years.
1971-72 Country's name changed to
Zaire, October 1971; under
policy of authenticity, all
colonial or Christian names
changed to Zairian ones, 1972;
provinces now called regions
and given non-European names.
1973 November Policy of Zairianization
proclaimed; foreign-owned
businesses and property
expropriated and distributed to
Zairian government officials,
resulting in increasing
economic chaos.
1974 August Revised version of 1967
constitution promulgated,
making MPR synonymous with
state.
1975 November Policy of retrocession
announced, returning much
expropriated property to
foreign owners.
1977 March Shaba I: Zairian insurgency
group invades Shaba Region from
Angola and is defeated, only
with help from France and
Morocco, by May.
October Legislative elections held.
December Mobutu reelected president,
running unopposed.
1978 February Constitution revised; military
establishment purged following
discovery of coup plot.
May Shaba II: Same insurgent group
launches another invasion of
Shaba from Zambia and is again
defeated only with help of
French and Belgians.
June Pan-African peacekeeping force
installed in Shaba and stays
for over a year.
1982 September Legislative
elections held;
multiple candidates
allowed for first
time; more than
three-quarters of
incumbents voted
out; thirteen
parliamentarians
attempt to form
second party and are
arrested.
1984 July Mobutu reelected without
opposition.
November Rebel forces occupy Moba in
Shaba Region for two days
before town recaptured by
Zairian forces.
1985 June Zaire celebrates twenty-
five years of
independence; on eve of
celebration, guerrillas
briefly occupy Moba
again.
1987 September Legislative elections held.
1989 February Student disturbances break out
in Kinshasa and Lubumbashi and
result in violent clashes with
armed police.
1990 April Third Republic declared on
April 24; Mobutu promises
national multiparty elections
the following year.
May Protesting students at
University of Lubumbashi
massacred by government forces;
as a result, Belgium, European
Community, Canada, and United
States ultimately cut off all
but humanitarian aid to Zaire.
December Legislation permitting
political parties to register
finally passed.
1991 April-May Security forces intervene
violently against
demonstrators.
August National conference on
political reform convened with
ostensible mandate to draft new
constitution as prelude to new
elections; conference
suspended, August 15.
September Unpaid paratroopers mutiny in
Kinshasa and go on rampage,
looting and violence spread;
France and Belgium send troops
to restore order and evacuate
foreign nationals.
October Opposition leader Étienne
Tshisekedi named prime minister
in early October but fired by
Mobutu a week later, spurring
violent demonstrations; France
joins other Western nations in
cutting off economic aid to
Zaire; Mobutu appoints Mungul-
Diaka to succeed Tshisekedi.
November Mobutu names another opposition
leader, Nguza Karl-i-Bond,
prime minister.
December National conference reconvenes.
1992 National conference activities
periodically suspended by
Mobutu; economy continues to
deteriorate; Western nations
call for Mobutu to step down,
but he clings to power.
February Peaceful demonstrations by
Christian groups violently
broken up by security forces;
up to forty-five killed and 100
injured.
April National conference meets,
declares itself to have
sovereign powers not only to
draw up a new constitution but
also to legislate a multiparty
system; Transitional Act passed
establishing new, transitional
government; these actions
constitute a direct challenge
to Mobutu, who does not accept
conference's authority.
August Newly named Sovereign National
Conference elects Tshisekedi
prime minister, precipitating
violent confrontations in Shaba
Region between supporters of
Tshisekedi and Nguza; conflict
between Tshisekedi and Mobutu
over who runs government
continues.
1993 January Soldiers riot and loot
following refusal by merchants
to accept new Z5 million notes
with which military personnel
were paid; in ensuing violence
dozens of soldiers killed by
elite army unit loyal to
Mobutu; French ambassador
killed while watching violence
from his office window.
March Mobutu dismisses Tshisekedi and
names Faustin Birindwa prime
minister of so-called
government of national
salvation; Birindwa names
cabinet in April; Zaire now has
two rival, parallel
governments.
October More rioting and looting occur
when opposition parties promote
boycott of new currency issue
used to pay troops.
Data as of December 1993